Assessing the Psychometric Properties of Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale: A Pakistani Context
Keywords:
Impostor Phenomenon (IP), Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS), Psychometric Validation, Pakistani Undergraduates
Abstract
The Impostor Phenomenon (IP) refers to a psychological sensation where undergraduates feel fraudulent or undeserving of their achievements, attributing success to external factors rather than their abilities. The most widely used scale to assess the feelings of the IP is the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS). This study evaluated the psychometric properties of CIPS among Pakistani undergraduates from a general university in Sindh. The research involved two randomly selected samples: the first, comprising of 315 participants (201 males and 114 females), was used for item discrimination, internal consistency reliability, and Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). The second sample, consisting of 220 participants (138 males and 82 females), was utilized for Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Results indicated that CIPS items demonstrated good discrimination power and high internal consistency reliability, with a Cronbach alpha of α = .91. EFA revealed that the IP is a unidimensional construct. CFA confirmed that this one-factor solution fits the data adequately. The findings suggest that the IP, as measured by CIPS, is a unidimensional construct among Pakistani undergraduates. This research contributes valuable insights for evaluating the presence of impostor feelings in educational contexts within Pakistan.
References
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Brauer, K., & Wolf, A. (2016). Validation of the German-language Clance impostor phenomenon scale (GCIPS). Personality and Individual Differences, 102, 153–158
Čarapina Zovko, I., Milić, J., Vucemilovic, F. B., Jemrić, N., Sulić, P., Turudić, M., ... & Biloglav, Z. (2021). Translation of the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale into the Croatian Language. Southeastern European Medical Journal: SEEMEDJ, 5(1), 145-156.
Chae, J. H., Piedmont, R. L., Estadt, B. K., & Wicks, R. J. (1995). Personological evaluation of Clance's Imposter Phenomenon Scale in a Korean sample. Journal of personality assessment, 65(3), 468-485.
Chrisman, S. M., Pieper, W., Clance, P. R., Holland, C., & Glickauf-Hughes,
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DeVellis, R.F. (2006). Classical test theory. Medical Care, 44(11), 50-59. https://doi.org/10.1 097/01.mlr.0000245426.10853.30
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Ertaş, H., Fi̇li̇z, E., Kahveci̇, Ş., & Ünal, S. N. (2022). Turkish Validity and Reliability Study of Challenge‐Hindrance Demands Scale for the Nursing Profession. International Journal of Clinical Practice, 2022(1), 3912003.
Fabrigar, L. R., & Wegener, D. T. (2012). Exploratory factor analysis. New York, NY: Oxford
Freeman, K. J., Houghton, S., Carr, S. E., & Nestel, D. (2022). Measuring impostor phenomenon in healthcare simulation educators: a validation of the clance impostor phenomenon scale and leary impostorism scale. BMC medical education, 22(1), 1-6.
French, B. F., Ullrich-French, S. C., & Follman, D. (2008). The psychometric properties of the Clance Impostor Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(5), 1270–1278.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2009). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Prentice-Hall
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Harvey, J. (1981). The Impostor Phenomenon: Overcoming the Fear that Haunts Your Success. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 18(2), 211-219.
Harvey, J. C. & Katz, C. (1985). If I'm so successful, why do I feel like a fake?: The impostor phenomenon (1st ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press.
Ijaz, F., Bokhari, U., Khan, S. K., Shoaib, U., Tariq, S., Haris, R. Z., & Aftab, R. K. (2022). Association of imposter phenomenon and burnout with mode of education among medical students of Pakistan: Imposter phenomenon and burnout with mode of education. Journal of Aziz Fatimah Medical & Dental College, 4(1).
Jöstl, G., Bergsmann, E., Lüftenegger, M., Schober, B., & Spiel, C. (2015). When will they blow my cover?. Zeitschrift für Psychologie.
Kline, P. (2000). The handbook of psychological testing (2nd ed.). Routledge
Kolligian, J., & Sternberg, R. J. (1991). Perceived fraudulence in young adults: Is there an impostor phenomenon? Journal of Personality Assessment, 56(2), 308-326.
Leonhardt, M., Bechtoldt, M. N., & Rohrmann, S. (2017). All impostors aren’t alike—Differentiating the impostor phenomenon. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1505.
Levant, B., Villwock, J. A., & Manzardo, A. M. (2020). Impostorism in American medical students during early clinical training: Gender differences and inter-correlating factors. International Journal of Medical Education, 11, 90–96.
MacCallum, R. C., Roznowski, M., & Necowitz, L. B. (1992). Model modifications in covariance structure analysis: the problem of capitalization on chance. Psychological bulletin, 111(3), 490.
Macdonald, P., & Paunonen, S.V. (2002). A Monte Carlo comparison of item and person
statistics based on item response theory versus classical test theory. Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 62(6), 921-943. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164402238082
Mak, K. K., Kleitman, S., & Abbott, M. J. (2019). Impostor phenomenon measurement scales: a systematic review. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 671.
Meghji, K. A., Shaikh, U. M., Hiba, U., & Asif, H. (2025). Prevalence of imposter phenomenon in students and its correlation with burnout syndrome: torn between perfection and exhaustion. Khyber Medical University Journal, 17(1), 19-25.
Nunnally, J.C., & Bernstein, I.H. (1994). Pschometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw Hill.
Oosterhof, A. (1990). Classroom Applications of Educational Measurements. Merrill, Columbus, OH.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2019.05.001
Özdemir, G. (2015). Başarılarımın sahibi ben değilim: Sosyal kimlik, sosyal baskınlık ve sistemi meşrulaştırma kuramları perspektifinden sahtekâr fenomeni (My achievements are not mine: Imposter phenomenon in light of the social identity, social dominance and system justification theories). [Unpublished Master Thesis]. Uludağ University paid.2017.04.029
Qureshi, M. A., Taj, J., Latif, M. Z., Zia, S., Rafique, M., & Chaudhry, M. A. (2017). Imposter syndrome among Pakistani medical students. Annals of King Edward Medical University, 23(2).
Şahin, E. E., & Gülşen, F. U. (2022). Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS): Adaptation and Validation in Turkish University Students. Psycho-Educational Research Reviews, 11(1), 270-282
Sandoval-Lentisco, A., Tortajada, M., Palmero, L. B., Campoy, G., Fuentes, L. J., & Martínez-Pérez, V. (2024). Propiedades psicométricas de la adaptación española de la Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (S-CIPS). Anales de Psicología/Annals of Psychology, 40(1), 38-43.
Simon, M., & Choi, Y. J. (2018). Using factor analysis to validate the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale in sample of science, technology, engineering and mathematics doctoral students. Personality and Individual Differences, 121, 173–175
Yaffe, Y. (2020). Validation of the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale with female Hebrew-speaking students. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 11(4), 2043808720974341
Zafar, U., Ali, Z., Akhter, F., Huda, N. U., Ali, A., & Zulfiqar, A. (2024). Imposter phenomenon: its association with personality traits and self-esteem among students-an observational study. Gomal Journal of Medical Sciences, 22(4 (S)), 401-407.
Živković, P. (2020). Using parallel analysis to validate the Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale. International Journal of Education Humanities and Social Science, 3(4), 408-414.
Afzal, S., Zamir, S., & Ali, M. A. (2024). Intricacies of Imposter Phenomenon, Mental Well-Being, Self-Compassion and Academic Integrity Interactions Among Students: Parallel Mediation Analysis. Annals of Human and Social Sciences, 5(2), 427–440. https://doi.org/10.35484/ahss.2024(5-II)40
Bauer-Wolf J. (2017, April 6). Feeling like impostors. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2017/04/06/study-shows-impostor-syndromes-effect-minority-students-mental-health
Bernard, D. L. (2019). Impostor phenomenon: A multi-method examination of construct validity among Black college students (Doctoral dissertation, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Brauer, K., & Wolf, A. (2016). Validation of the German-language Clance impostor phenomenon scale (GCIPS). Personality and Individual Differences, 102, 153–158
Čarapina Zovko, I., Milić, J., Vucemilovic, F. B., Jemrić, N., Sulić, P., Turudić, M., ... & Biloglav, Z. (2021). Translation of the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale into the Croatian Language. Southeastern European Medical Journal: SEEMEDJ, 5(1), 145-156.
Chae, J. H., Piedmont, R. L., Estadt, B. K., & Wicks, R. J. (1995). Personological evaluation of Clance's Imposter Phenomenon Scale in a Korean sample. Journal of personality assessment, 65(3), 468-485.
Chrisman, S. M., Pieper, W., Clance, P. R., Holland, C., & Glickauf-Hughes,
C. (1995). Validation of the Clance imposter phenomenon scale. Journal
of personality assessment, 65(3), 456-467.
Clance, P. R., & Imes, S. A. (1978). The imposter phenomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and therapeutic intervention. Psychotherapy: Theory, research & practice, 15(3), 241.
Cokley, K., McClain, S., Enciso, A., & Martinez, M. (2013). An examination of the impact of minority status stress and impostor feelings on the mental health of diverse ethnic minority college students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 41(2), 82–95. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2013.00029.x
Cozzarelli, C., & Major, B. (1990). Explaining women's depression: The role of the impostor phenomenon. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14(3), 327-341.
DeVellis, R.F. (2006). Classical test theory. Medical Care, 44(11), 50-59. https://doi.org/10.1 097/01.mlr.0000245426.10853.30
Erekson, D. M., Larsen, R. A., Clayton, C. K., Hamm, I., Hoskin, J. M., Morrison, S., ... & Beecher, M. E. (2022). Is the Measure Good Enough? Measurement Invariance and Validity of the Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale in a University Population. Psychological Reports, 00332941221139991.
Ertaş, H., Fi̇li̇z, E., Kahveci̇, Ş., & Ünal, S. N. (2022). Turkish Validity and Reliability Study of Challenge‐Hindrance Demands Scale for the Nursing Profession. International Journal of Clinical Practice, 2022(1), 3912003.
Fabrigar, L. R., & Wegener, D. T. (2012). Exploratory factor analysis. New York, NY: Oxford
Freeman, K. J., Houghton, S., Carr, S. E., & Nestel, D. (2022). Measuring impostor phenomenon in healthcare simulation educators: a validation of the clance impostor phenomenon scale and leary impostorism scale. BMC medical education, 22(1), 1-6.
French, B. F., Ullrich-French, S. C., & Follman, D. (2008). The psychometric properties of the Clance Impostor Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(5), 1270–1278.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2009). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Prentice-Hall
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2014). Multivariate data analysis: Pearson new international edition. Essex: Pearson Education Limited, 1(2).
Harvey, J. (1981). The Impostor Phenomenon: Overcoming the Fear that Haunts Your Success. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 18(2), 211-219.
Harvey, J. C. & Katz, C. (1985). If I'm so successful, why do I feel like a fake?: The impostor phenomenon (1st ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press.
Ijaz, F., Bokhari, U., Khan, S. K., Shoaib, U., Tariq, S., Haris, R. Z., & Aftab, R. K. (2022). Association of imposter phenomenon and burnout with mode of education among medical students of Pakistan: Imposter phenomenon and burnout with mode of education. Journal of Aziz Fatimah Medical & Dental College, 4(1).
Jöstl, G., Bergsmann, E., Lüftenegger, M., Schober, B., & Spiel, C. (2015). When will they blow my cover?. Zeitschrift für Psychologie.
Kline, P. (2000). The handbook of psychological testing (2nd ed.). Routledge
Kolligian, J., & Sternberg, R. J. (1991). Perceived fraudulence in young adults: Is there an impostor phenomenon? Journal of Personality Assessment, 56(2), 308-326.
Leonhardt, M., Bechtoldt, M. N., & Rohrmann, S. (2017). All impostors aren’t alike—Differentiating the impostor phenomenon. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1505.
Levant, B., Villwock, J. A., & Manzardo, A. M. (2020). Impostorism in American medical students during early clinical training: Gender differences and inter-correlating factors. International Journal of Medical Education, 11, 90–96.
MacCallum, R. C., Roznowski, M., & Necowitz, L. B. (1992). Model modifications in covariance structure analysis: the problem of capitalization on chance. Psychological bulletin, 111(3), 490.
Macdonald, P., & Paunonen, S.V. (2002). A Monte Carlo comparison of item and person
statistics based on item response theory versus classical test theory. Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 62(6), 921-943. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164402238082
Mak, K. K., Kleitman, S., & Abbott, M. J. (2019). Impostor phenomenon measurement scales: a systematic review. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 671.
Meghji, K. A., Shaikh, U. M., Hiba, U., & Asif, H. (2025). Prevalence of imposter phenomenon in students and its correlation with burnout syndrome: torn between perfection and exhaustion. Khyber Medical University Journal, 17(1), 19-25.
Nunnally, J.C., & Bernstein, I.H. (1994). Pschometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw Hill.
Oosterhof, A. (1990). Classroom Applications of Educational Measurements. Merrill, Columbus, OH.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2019.05.001
Özdemir, G. (2015). Başarılarımın sahibi ben değilim: Sosyal kimlik, sosyal baskınlık ve sistemi meşrulaştırma kuramları perspektifinden sahtekâr fenomeni (My achievements are not mine: Imposter phenomenon in light of the social identity, social dominance and system justification theories). [Unpublished Master Thesis]. Uludağ University paid.2017.04.029
Qureshi, M. A., Taj, J., Latif, M. Z., Zia, S., Rafique, M., & Chaudhry, M. A. (2017). Imposter syndrome among Pakistani medical students. Annals of King Edward Medical University, 23(2).
Şahin, E. E., & Gülşen, F. U. (2022). Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS): Adaptation and Validation in Turkish University Students. Psycho-Educational Research Reviews, 11(1), 270-282
Sandoval-Lentisco, A., Tortajada, M., Palmero, L. B., Campoy, G., Fuentes, L. J., & Martínez-Pérez, V. (2024). Propiedades psicométricas de la adaptación española de la Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (S-CIPS). Anales de Psicología/Annals of Psychology, 40(1), 38-43.
Simon, M., & Choi, Y. J. (2018). Using factor analysis to validate the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale in sample of science, technology, engineering and mathematics doctoral students. Personality and Individual Differences, 121, 173–175
Yaffe, Y. (2020). Validation of the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale with female Hebrew-speaking students. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 11(4), 2043808720974341
Zafar, U., Ali, Z., Akhter, F., Huda, N. U., Ali, A., & Zulfiqar, A. (2024). Imposter phenomenon: its association with personality traits and self-esteem among students-an observational study. Gomal Journal of Medical Sciences, 22(4 (S)), 401-407.
Živković, P. (2020). Using parallel analysis to validate the Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale. International Journal of Education Humanities and Social Science, 3(4), 408-414.
Published
2025-10-31
How to Cite
Rajput, N. H., & Mahesar, A. R. (2025). Assessing the Psychometric Properties of Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale: A Pakistani Context. Journal of Social Sciences and Media Studies, 9(1), 7-23. https://doi.org/10.58921/jossams.09.01.0444
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Articles
